From: Mike Taylor Date: Tue, 8 Oct 2002 08:08:52 +0000 (+0000) Subject: Remover records/taxa.xml, simplified config X-Git-Tag: ZEBRA.1.3.3.DEBIAN.4~4 X-Git-Url: http://jsfdemo.indexdata.com/?a=commitdiff_plain;h=bf07c880d791008bb81431e479c93c03d7567a44;p=idzebra-moved-to-github.git Remover records/taxa.xml, simplified config --- diff --git a/examples/dinosauricon/Makefile b/examples/dinosauricon/Makefile index 92400ab..70f951a 100644 --- a/examples/dinosauricon/Makefile +++ b/examples/dinosauricon/Makefile @@ -1,8 +1,7 @@ -SOURCEFILES = records/genera.xml records/taxa.xml OBJECECTFILES = *.mf *.LCK zebrasrv.pid zebraidx.time -isamcA-0.mf: $(SOURCEFILES) - ../../index/zebraidx -t grs.sgml update records +isamcA-0.mf: records/genera.xml + ../../index/zebraidx update records clean: rm -f $(OBJECECTFILES) diff --git a/examples/dinosauricon/README b/examples/dinosauricon/README index 5bd1a48..7226d25 100644 --- a/examples/dinosauricon/README +++ b/examples/dinosauricon/README @@ -1,15 +1,15 @@ This example shows how a Zebra server can act as an XML repository and search engine with the absolute minimum of configuration. The data -used here is description of dinosaur genera and higher taxa, taken -from Michael Keesey's wonderful reference web-site, the Dinosauricon -at http://dinosauricon.com/ +used here is description of dinosaur genera, taken from Michael +Keesey's wonderful reference web-site, the Dinosauricon at + http://dinosauricon.com/ As though making the site itself freely available weren't enough, Mike also offers the raw XML data from which the site's built. I've hand-hacked the files slightly to get them into a form that Zebra is happy with, but the data itself is entirely due to him. You can always get the up-to-date version from -http://dinosauricon.com/data/ + http://dinosauricon.com/data/ (These were current at Thu Aug 29 17:11:27 BST 2002) diff --git a/examples/dinosauricon/records/taxa.xml b/examples/dinosauricon/records/taxa.xml deleted file mode 100644 index a63d9c3..0000000 --- a/examples/dinosauricon/records/taxa.xml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7693 +0,0 @@ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

These were large, often huge predators. Some -of the carcharodontosaurines are the largest known carnivores ever to walk -upon the Earth, even larger than .

- -

A recent find of a group of differently-aged carcharodontosaurines (the -genus is yet to be publicly named) in association with each other suggests -that these enormous carnivores may have hunted in packs. Interestingly, -the largest known land animals of all time, -such as , lived alongside these largest -land predators of all time. It is possible that packs of South American -carcharodontosaurines, each measuring up to 45 feet long, might have -preyed upon herds of 130+-foot-long titanosaurs.

- -

There are some cranial similarities -between and , another -group of Gondwanan (Southern Hemisphere) carnivores. This is probably due to -convergence. It has been noted that , which is -known only from a cranium, could conceivably be and not a .

- - - - - - - - - 's taxon - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

This recently discovered group has -proven difficult to place. The original member, , was originally given its own family in . When was first -discovered, it proved a bafflement. It had -like -features (the skull, a keeled breastbone), unbirdlike features (the tail), -features like (pinched -middle metatarsal), and some features completely unique (the single, -hooked claw on its stubby arms). (NOTE: Some of these fossils have been -reassigned to the very closely related .)

- -

The discovery of , a creature seemingly -transitional between the more primitive and -the more derived mononykines, showed that all three probably belonged -to the same group. They are now generally though to be primitive birds, -although some think they may be related to . -(One piece of alvarezsaur ankle found by O. C. Marsh in the late 1800's was -actually assigned to the genus .)

- -

Alvarezsaurs were small, terrestrial animals with -long legs. Their niche is far from certain. Since their stubby forearms -were built so powerfully, it has been suggested that they used them for -digging. (In fact, some think that their sterna were keeled as a digging -adaptation, similar to moles, and that they evolved keeled sterna -separately from birds, which evolved it for flying.) The overall body plan -of alvarezsaurs is not that of a burrower, but it has been suggested that -they might have fed on colonial insects, ripping into nests with their -single-clawed hands.

- - - - - - - - - - without apses - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - side necks - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - hidden necks - - - - - - - - - - true cryptodirans - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Anapsida is a clade of of with no fenestrae -(openings) in the back of their skulls. It includes large herbivores like -pareiasaurs as well as modern-day turtles. During the , "The Age of Reptiles", turtles grew to great -sizes. Some, like , were the size of a -car!

- -

In traditional usage, Anapsida included all -without antorbital fenestrae. It has now been restricted to those sharing -more recent ancestry with chelonians (turtles) than with other extant -amniote groups. Membership is mostly the same, but excludes basalmost - (e.g. ) and -basal romeriids (e.g. ). -

- -

Within Reptilia, anapsids are probably the most distant relatives of -.

- - - - - - - - - - - - animals - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Among Earth's enormously vast array of animals, belong to the clade, -which is characterized by the possession of a backbone.

- - - - - - - - ' taxon - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Ankylosaurs include the most heavily armored -dinosaurs of all, the "tanks" of the . The -entire back was covered with bony plates, studs, and spikes. So was the -head, right down to the eyelids! (Bony eyelids have been found in and , which are so -distantly related within Ankylosauroidea as to suggest that all -ankylosauroids had bony eyelids, at least primitively.)

- -

Some nodosaurids bore very large spikes along their sides, the largest -often sprouting from the shoulders. These may have been used as defense, -weapons in rivalry, or both.

- -

These animals are known from all -continents except South America and Africa. They were most prevalent in -Laurasia (the northern supercontinent).

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

A large club at the end of the tail -distinguishes ankylosaurines and shamosaurines from the more primitive - They probably used this club to give -crippling blows to potential predators. A similar structure existed in the - , as well as the -glyptodonts, an extinct group of giant South American related to armadillos. Ankylosaurines also had -shorter, more triangular skulls than other ankylosaurs and no spikes along -their sides.

- -

Polacanthines were once classified as -nodosaurids, but are now recognized as a distinct clade closer to the -Ankylosaurinae. It was recently thought that they had small tail clubs, -but this has been refuted.

- -

Shamosaurines had narrow snouts, especially compared to the very wide -snouts of ankylosaurines. This may reflect different niches.

- -

Many ankylosaurines had complex, looping nasal passages, possibly to -enhance their sense of smell.

- - - - - - - - archosaur forms - - - - - - - before lizard forms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - archosaur forms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ruling lizards - - - - - - - - - false crocodiles - - - - - - - - cross ankles - - - - - - - - beside crocodiles - - - - - - - - - - - crocodiles - - - - - - - - ' taxon - - - - - - - - beside Crocodylomorpha - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - bird crocodiles - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Archosauromorpha includes all with -four-chambered hearts, an evolutionary innovation that permitted them -higher activity levels and terrestrial dominance throughout the .

- -

The forms shown here were once all included in -Archosauria in the "grab-bag" taxon "Thecodontia" -- any archosaur that -wasn't a , a , or -a . This form of classification was abandoned -once knowledge about these animals increased.

- -

The non-archosaur archosauromorphs, or "protoarchosaurs", show fairly -wide diversity, from small hunters with insanely long necks like to large, beaked herbivores like the -rhynchosaurs to the megalancosaurids, bizarre climbers with prehensile -tails.

- -

The two major groups of Archosauria proper are rather poorly named. -Pseudosuchia means "false crocodiles", yet it includes true ones. -Ornithosuchia was named after the creature , and defined as all animals sharing more recent ancestry with -birds than with crocodiles. Unfortunately, subsequent analyses have shown -that was not an ornithosuchian, -but a pseudosuchian!

- -

Pseudosuchians became the dominant -terrestrial animals after the demise of the two previous "dynasties" -- the "" -and the non- . They -diversified into many niches: armored herbivores (aetosaurs), big -carnivores (rauisuchians), tiny sprinters (), and water-dwellers (parasuchians and ). There is evidence that many pseudosuchians -may have been agile, active creatures, unlike the only modern -pseudosuchians () which have reverted to a -sluggish lifestyle.

- -

But by the end of the they had been -outcompeted by their fellow archosaurs, the ornithosuchian . Dinosaurs and pterosaurs would continue to -dominate terrestrial and aerial niches until the end of the , far longer than any previous or subsequent -terrestrial "dynasty" (and they still dominate aerial niches!). Of -all the pseudosuchians, only the aquatic crocodylomorphs survived beyond -the .

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - birds - - - - - - - - - - - - - - pygostyles ("Parson's noses") - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - modern bird chests - - - - - true birds - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ancient birds - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - lizard tails - - - - - - - - - - - -

Birds evolved from small, possibly "sickle-clawed" - probably sometime during the (some have suggested the ), -as did their close relatives the . The -earliest known definite bird is the European , a small flying predator from the Late Jurassic. -The North American has been interpreted as a -Late Triassic bird that is more "advanced" than , but few /bird -researchers agree with this at present.

- -

Pygostylian birds are characterized by a -pygostyle, a fusion of the vertebrae at the end of the tail. This trait -seems to have evolved convergently in at least one () and at least one - ().

- -

Ornithothoracean birds, a large subset of pygostylians that includes -, have a "modern-style" thorax and an alula, -or "bastard wing" -- a group of feathers associated with the first finger -that aids maneuverability in flight.

- -

Unlike the other two groups of -flying , and -, the hindlimbs of birds are not in any way coupled with -the wings, and remain free for running. Due to this and other pieces of -evidence, some dinosaur researchers argue that birds did not evolve from a -tree-dwelling ancestor, as the other groups are thought to have. Recent -studies suggest that could run fast enough to -take off from the ground, bolstering this hypothesis, commonly known as the -"Ground Up" hypothesis.

- -

But many disagree with this idea, arguing that flight in birds evolved as -it seems to have in bats and pterosaurs -- from the "Trees Down". -They hold that bird ancestors were scansorial coelurosaurs which leaped from -tree to tree, then evolved into gliders, and from there to fliers. The -facts that has claws sharply recurved for -climbing and that its first toe is reversed for perching support this -idea.

- -

As of now, the fossil evidence does not clearly favor either the -"Trees Down" or "Ground Up" hypotheses of the evolution -of flight in birds.

- -

The hypothesis that birds descended from -dinosaurs has been around for a long time. Thomas Huxley (a.k.a. "Darwin's -bulldog") proposed such a relationship based on similarities between - and dinosaurs. This view was dismissed by -Gerhard Heilmann, who noted that dinosaurs lack clavicles, which are not -only present in birds but fused to form the furcula, or "wishbone". -Heilmann's suggestion that birds and dinosaurs descended separately from -"thecodont" (basal ) stock held fast for -most of the 1900's.

- -

Heilmann's view was finally dispelled by the discovery that some dinosaur fossils (such as those of ) do in fact have clavicles. In forms (such as , , ), they are even -fused to form furculae. These elements had often been mistaken for rib -fragments. Additionally, clavicles are reduced or missing in some modern -birds, and were likely so for many other theropods.

- -

A more recent objection to the dinosaur-bird link is the claim that -embryological evidence shows the digits in the hands of modern birds to be -II-III-IV, not I-II-III as in coelurosaurs and other . In fact, the story may be quite a bit more -complicated. It is not certain that the element that has been interpreted -as a vestigial digit I is in fact digit I. Furthermore, other studies show -that frame shift can cause some birds to have digits aligned differently -than in other birds, even with the same species.

- -

Opponents of the dinosaurian theory of bird origins have yet to -propose an explicit alternate theory, generally stating that birds -evolved from basal of some kind. They -also have yet to explain why such an enormous degree of convergence -would appear between birds and terrestrial -when they represent separate niches.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - flesh-eating lizards - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

The taxon Carnosauria once included all large , from large to to . More recent -research shows that most of these are more closely allied to other groups. -Today, only the allosaurids and their relatives are considered true -carnosaurs (The precise definition: all animals sharing a more recent -common ancestor with than with ).

- -

Many carnosaurs bore crests atop their heads. -The primitive forms and (one of the few dinosaurs from Antarctica) had -ridges along the tops of their snouts. In -this culminated in a large, vertical crest. had -paired crests above the eyes, especially prominent in -.

- -

Carnosaurs did not survive to the end of the -. They may have been out-competed by and . But in -their heyday they included the largest known land predators of all time. -

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

One of the two main lineages of ceratopsids (a.k.a. horned -dinosaurs"), most centrosaurines bore large horns on their noses. Unlike -most members of their sister group, the , -their neck frills tended to be relatively short, although often -accentuated by two large spikes at the top, or spikes all along the rim of -the frill as in . Their snouts were also -short.

- -

The advanced pachyrhinosaurins had a large, blunt bony growth in place -of the nasal horn. This may have formed the core of a horny pad in life, -or possibly the core of a gigantic nasal horn.

- - - - - - - - - - - - ' taxon - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' taxon - - - - - - - - - - new ceratopsians - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

This group of herbivores contains the frilled , including the horned dinosaurs. Like many other -groups of dinosaurs, they inhabited only Asia and North -America.

- -

is the most primitive known -ceratopsian. The back of its skull hints at the giant neck frill of later -ceratopsians. Its powerful parrot-like beak, for which the genus was named -("parrot lizard"), features an extra bone. This bone, the rostral bone, is -unique to ceratopsians.

- -

The creatures on this page were all bipedal. From such as these came -the quadrupedal . Coronosaurs were generally -larger, although at least one bipedal ceratopsian () grew to a fairly large size. Bipedal ceratopsians -persisted until the end of the , co-existing with -the more advanced .

- -

(See for a discussion on the "s" in -Ceratopsia).

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Unlike their sister group, the , -ceratopsines (a.k.a. chasmosaurines), placed more emphasis on brow horns -than the nasal horn, to the point that some barely had a nasal horn at -all, hence names like ("without nose-horn -face") and ("two-horned face").

- -

Their neck frills were longer than those of centrosaurines, except in -the lineage leading to , wherein they became -short and completely solid, with no parietal fenestrae.

- -

There has been some disagreement over the name of this group and all -other groups named after the genus . For years -they have been known as Ceratopsidae, Ceratopsia, etc. Some have pointed -out that this is not correct Greek, and that the "s" should be dropped, -hence Ceratopidae, Ceratopia. But the names with "s" have become deeply -entrenched in terminology, and are used on this -site.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Coelophysoids were a group of early -. Most were characterized by a kink in the -front of the upper snout, similar to the snout kink of the . (In fact, some have considered spinosaurids to -be late-surviving coelophysoids.) It was once thought that this kink, -which allowed some mobility for the premaxilla, would have weakened the -skull. But it is now known to have been internally strengthened, and ideas -that coelophysoids could not have been true predators have been dismissed. -

- -

and the similar -and were medium-small hunters, larger than -the tiny procompsognathines. , , and were the largest -coelophysoids, about 15 to 20 feet long.

- - - - - - - - - - - - hollow-tailed lizards - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - maniraptor forms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - pinched metatarsals - - - - - - - - - - big-handed raiders - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - beside - - - - - - - - - - - - - true maniraptors - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - pneumatic braincase lizards - - - - - - - - - - tyrant raiders - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' taxon - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Coelurosauria once included all the small . -It was the sister group to , which included -all the big theropods. This system of theropod classification has become -very much outdated, but the original names are still kept for certain -actual groups. If the more primitive forms of the old Coelurosauria are -excluded and a few other forms are added (including ), they do form a monophyletic group. Interestingly, -this group that once contained only small theropods now includes , one of the largest theropods, indeed, one of -the largest land predators of all time.

- -

Coelurosaurs are an enormously diverse group. They include , , , , , and the incredibly varied birds.

- -

Skin impressions are known from several coelurosaurs. -A partial impression, possibly from the tail of a -shows scales like those seen in other dinosaurs. All other -coelurosaur skin impressions, such as those of , -, , , , and birds like -, -show feathers or feather-like integument. Such integument may have been -present in the earliest coelurosaurs, then lost in gigantic forms, much as -gigantic tend not to have hair.

- -

The advanced coelurosaurs make up -Maniraptoriformes. All -maniraptoriforms sharing a more recent ancestor with than with birds are arctometatarsalians. All sharing -a more recent ancestor with birds than with -are maniraptors. It is not certain whether some groups (coelurids, -compsognathids, ornitholestids, etc.) belong to one of these two groups -or fall outside of Maniraptoriformes.

- -

Arctometatarsalia originally included , -avimimids, tyrannosauroids, troodontids, and ornithomimosaurs. It was -named for the arctometatarsalian foot of these animals, wherein the -middle metatarsal is pinched at the top. This trait, an adaptation for -running, is now thought to have evolved separately in caenagnathids -and possibly in all five of the groups. -have an extreme version of this feature.

- - - - - - - - - crowned lizards - - - - - - - - - - forms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

This group includes all of the quadrupedal . Coronosaurs tend to be larger and have larger -neck frills than more primitive ceratopsians. There has been much dispute -as to whether the front limbs of coronosaurs were held fully erect or -sprawling to various degrees. An intermediate posture seems most likely.

- -

The most primitive coronosaurs, like the well-known , lacked horns, although they bore small bumps on -their noses. , the most primitive known -ceratopsoid, possessed a true horn on its nose. In addition to the nasal -horn ceratopsomorphs like possessed brow -horns above their eyes.

- -

The function of the neck frills in these and other ceratopsians is not -certain. They may have borne colorful displays, protected the neck from -predators, anchored powerful cheek muscles, amplified low-frequency sounds, -or performed a combination of these functions. In , one gender (male?) has -a much wider frill than the other, supporting the idea that these were -used as sexual displays.

- -

Hailing from the very latest stretch of -the , ceratopsids were the pinnacle of - evolution. They included some of the very -largest , such as the mighty . They are only known from North America (unless the -Asian is really a ceratopsid).

- -

Skin impressions are known from both centrosaurine ceratopsids () and ceratopsine ceratopsids (). They both show large, flat scales interspersed -with larger, round tubercles.

- -

The genera listed here, plus other -were once grouped in the family Protoceratopsidae (=Protoceratopidae), -since they all had claws instead of hooves. Most now consider this a -paraphyletic (and hence invalid) grouping. There may, however, be a -monophyletic (hence valid) group of basal coronosaurs which would be -termed Protoceratopsidae.

- - - - - - - - - - - (crocodile) forms - - - - - (crocodile) forms - - - - - - - - - intermediate true crocodylians - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' (crocodile) taxon - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - short rostrums - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Crocodylomorphs originated around the same time as the . They were the only -to survive the , and survive to the present day -in the form of crocodylians. Of all living animals, crocodylians are the -closest relatives to dinosaurs (excluding , -which are dinosaurs). Unlike other living (except for birds), crocodylians have a -four-chambered heart and a semi-upright stance.

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Some "primitive" crocodylomorphs may have been more active and agile -than today's crocodylians, which have evolved a relatively sluggish -lifestyle.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - lizards - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

The most striking -feature of the dromaeosaurids was the large second claw of the foot, which -was highly mobile and could swing back and forth, thus giving it the -nickname "switchblade claw" or "sickle claw". Similar claws were present -on the feet of other primitive , as well as - (which may be paravians) and, to a lesser -extent, . Troodontids were once included in -Deinonychosauria because of their "sickle claws", but they are usually now -recognized as relatives of (a.k.a. -"ostrich mimics").

- -

The attack strategy of a dromaeosaurid was possibly to leap at its -prey, feet and arms extended. This posture would be balanced by the long, -stiff tail. The dromaeosaurid would grab onto its prey with cruel, -grasping hands, then tear out the unfortunate creature's throat or guts -with the eviscerating foot-claws.

- -

The energy and quickness needed to carry out such a maneuver is one -piece of evidence used in the debate over whether were cold-blooded or warm-blooded.

- -

These dinosaurs may have hunted in packs, as shown by one find where -three skeletons were found near a skeleton of -the herbivore . But another dromaeosaurid -find shows a solitary locked in combat with a -. It may be that these creatures used -whatever hunting strategy fitted the situation, as wolves () do today, or that behavior varied between -species, as in gregarious lions () -and solitary tigers ().

- -

Dromaeosaurids were probably very close to - ancestry, as shown by their bird-like hip arrangement -(unusual for non- ), -extremely stiffened tails, and their similarity to the feathered, flying -. In fact, the most recently published -deinonychosaur, , shows impressions -of feathers or feather-like integument (not too much of a surprise, -since feathered dinosaurs less closely related to birds had already been -found). They may have even been secondarily flightless, -like modern-day birds.

- -

"'Raptors" were one of the major stars of the blockbuster movie -Jurassic Park. Although this movie and its sequel, Jurassic Park -2: The Lost World boasts the most accurate dinosaurs in the history of -movies, there are a significant number of errors, especially with the -"'raptors". The most obvious problem is that they were much too big. Real - were about the size of jackals. Even 's big brother wasn't as -big as Jurassic Park's "'raptors".

- -

The reason for this is probably as follows. Michael Crichton wanted to -use a fierce, approximately man-sized predator. was ideal. But he also wanted the name for plot reasons. Luckily for him, there was one -dinosaur researcher who believed the two dinosaurs were similar enough to -be in the same genus, which by virtue of seniority would be called . So, Crichton used but -called it . (Since then, new studies of the -skulls have shown them to be separate genera.)

- -

For the movie they decided to bump the size up. They also gave it a -more -like head, unlike 's, which has a rather concave snout.

- -

Interestingly, while the movie was being made, a new dromaeosaurid was -found which was even larger than the movie's "'raptor". The discovery of -this new dinosaur () showed that there actually -must have been a -like creature about the same -size as the ones in Jurassic Park, an intermediate in size between - and . In fact, some -undescribed forms may fit the bill.

- -

So the "'raptor" in Jurassic Park is probably a decent -approximation of a real, undescribed dromaeosaurid (not a , though), except for some further inaccuracies, like -the flexible tail, the incorrect hands, and the lack of feathers.

- - - - - - - - - - - - fearfully great lizards - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - lizard-like ischia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - true saurischians - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - plant-eating dinosaurs - - - - - - - -

There are three major types of dinosaur. -includes all of the carnivorous dinosaurs, as well as their modern-day -descendants, the . consists of long-necked herbivorous dinosaurs, -including , the largest land -animals of all time. The third group, , -contains many diverse forms of beaked, herbivorous dinosaurs.

- -

Although the major groups of -dinosaurs are clearly recognized, there -is some debate about their relationships to each other and to the -ancestors of dinosaurs. About the only thing that can be confidently -stated about early dinosaurian/ evolution is -that the following evolutionary lineage occured: - -ancestral ornithodiran - | - +--> - | - +--> - | - +--> - | - +--> - | - +--> - | - \/ - -

- -

are thought to have split off from this -lineage probably before (some don't think -pterosaurs are particularly closely related to dinosaurs at all). -Ornithischians probably split off somewhere before , -but perhaps between and -Neotheropoda. Sauropodomorphs could have split off anywhere before -Neotheropoda, but after Ornithischia, or possibly with it.

- -

The confusion about dinosaur ancestry leads to the question "What is a -dinosaur?" The original definition of Dinosauria, as stated by Sir Richard -Owen in 1842, was a group of large (which he -considered a type of ) consisting of , , and , the only non- dinosaur -genera described at that time (save for and -, which Owen thought to be aquatic, -like creatures, and some mainland European forms -like and , -which Owen had not examined).

- -

Dinosauria was traditionally divided into the orders Ornithischia -("bird hips" -- a misleading term) and Saurischia ("lizard hips"). For -much of the history of paleontology, the status of Dinosauria as a real -group has been considered dubious -- Ornithischia and Saurischia were -separated from each other and sometimes were themselves split up. More -recently, however, cladistic analysis has reaffirmed Dinosauria as a -natural group. It is defined as the most recent common ancestor of (which are now considered saurischians) and - (an ornithischian), plus all of that -ancestor's descendants. (As some have noted, it might have been more -proper to use and -as anchors instead of birds and , but this -phylogenetic definition has priority, and, by all cladistic studies, -represents the same group anyway. Besides, the type specimens of and are rather poor.)

- -

This definition has lead to some disagreement as to whether certain -primitive ornithodirans are dinosaurs or not. Some include all of the -genera shown in the above lineage in Dinosauria, whereas others don't even -consider to be true dinosaurs. On these -pages is considered the most primitive known true -dinosaur, and probably a primitive theropod, due to such characteristics -as highly reduced manual digits IV and V (neotheropods have no digit V and -either no digit IV or a reduced one).

- -

- -The uncertainty revolving about the origins of the major dinosaur groups -has also caused another debate. Traditionally, Sauropodomorpha has been -grouped with Theropoda in Saurischia, sister group to the Ornithischia. -This is due to the fact that both saurischian groups have a primitive -lizard-like hip bone arrangement, with the pubis pointing forward (except -for some advanced groups), while ornithischians have a derived, -superficially bird-like arrangement where a process on the pubis points -backwards. (In birds and some bird-like theropods, the pubis itself -points backwards.)

- -

But a minority claim that early sauropodomorphs show more similarities -to early ornithischians than to theropods. They classify Sauropodomorpha -and Ornithischia in Phytodinosauria ("plant dinosaurs") as a sister taxon -to Theropoda.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Diplodocids included some of the hugest creatures to walk upon the -Earth. and -probably weighed in at 45-60 metric tonnes.

- -

These animals have been the focus of several computer-assisted studies -in biophysics. One study suggests that diplodocids could actually crack -their tails like whips, causing loud sonic booms. Another study, focusing -on the other end of the animals, suggests that they could not hold their -heads very high, and thus may have fed on low-growing vegetation. This -goes against previous thought that evolved their -long necks to reach into the trees.

- -

Recently a diplodocid was found with non-bony dermal spines along its -back. Since non-bony structures are rarely preserved, it is not certain -how widely throughout this feature -existed.

- - - - - - - - - forms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Members of this group had long, whip-like tails -(possibly used for defense), peg-like teeth, and high vertebral spines. -The extremely long spines of some diplodocimorphs, such as - and , -may have formed large dorsal sails, like those of the - and the - .

- -

Some of these animals, like the dicraeosaurids, made it into the -Cretaceous, but not to the end of the Mesozoic Era.

- -

There is a possible diplodocimorph named , known -from a drawing of a crumbling neural arch. Based on comparison to -other diplodocimorphs, it would have been about 50m long and weighed about -120-150 tonnes, making it by far the largest land creature of all time! -Unfortunately, the actual specimen has been lost, presumably disintegrated, -for a long time (if it ever, indeed, existed).

- - - - - - - - - opposite birds - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - forms - - - - - forms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Enantiornitheans were a large group of which -evolved alongside modern-style birds, or , -during the . Their name ("opposite birds") -refers -to the articulation of the scapula with the coracoid, opposite to that of -modern birds. Like neornitheans, advanced enantiornitheans were toothless. -These two lineages, along with , -, and , -represent the five known lineages of toothless -.

- -

Enantiornitheans achieved a fair degree of -diversity, beginning as -small, perching fliers, with some developing into shorebirds. They -ranged from sparrow- to vulture-size.

- -

Although apparently more plentiful than their neornithean cousins -during the Cretaceous, enantiornitheans, like all non-neornithean -dinosaurs, became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous. Why neornitheans -survived while they did not remains a mystery.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

These "duck-billed" were mostly non-crested, -although some, like and , -had small, spiky crests. Hadrosaurines include the largest - of all time, such as the enormous -, which was on par with small- to medium-sized -.

- -

Before the discovery of , dinosaurs were -generally thought to be -all quadrupedal. ' long hindlimbs and relatively -short forelimbs indicated otherwise. It was originally reconstructed -standing upright, like a human. Now it is thought that all hadrosaurs, -indeed, all were facultatively -quadrupedal, able to move on all fours or on two legs, with the back -horizontal in all positions.

- -

The old genus has recently been sunk into -, except for one separate species, for which -the generic name was coined.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

These are commonly known as the "duck-billed" dinosaurs, since their -beaks bore a superficial resemblance to those of ducks. They were the last, -largest, and most numerous of the .

- -

More "primitive" hadrosauroids like -had small thumb-spikes, -like the larger thumb-spikes of other . -This digit was lost entirely in hadrosaurids. -and an unnamed hadrosauroid possessed large sails on their backs, like those -of and -.

- -

Hadrosaurids are divided into two subfamilies, the generally non-crested -hadrosaurines and the lambeosaurines, which developed large hollow crests -on their heads. At least one scientist considers them to be two separate families, -with closer to the hadrosaurids and - closer to the lambeosaurids.

- -

It was once thought that the duck-bills, like their namesakes, were -aquatic. This notion seemed to be supported when a fossilized "mummy" of a -hadrosaurid was discovered, showing what appeared to be webbed fingers on -the hands. The hollow crests of the lambeosaurines were supposed to be for -air storage, since they connected to the nasal passages.

- -

This theory is largely out of favor now. The "webbed" fingers, upon -closer scrutiny, more closely resemble desiccated hoof pads. The crests -could not have functioned as air storage, since they were rigid and -inflexible. Air sucked out of them would have created a vacuum. And the -rugged teeth of the hadrosaurids strongly indicate that they ate rough, woody -plant material, not soft seaweed. The teeth in the jaw were aligned in great -"batteries", so that if one wore out there was another one behind it to -replace it. Some hadrosaurid jaws contained as much as 2,000 teeth!

- -

It seems that duck-bills led a largely terrestrial life. They would walk -primarily on all fours, as shown by the hoof-like nails and supporting pads -on the hands, but were easily capable of switching to bipedal locomotion.

- - - - - - - - - forms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

These are the only known marine of the -! Hesperornithiforms had adapted to life in -the oceans of Laurasia, and are best known from the -North American interior, which was covered by a large sea during much of the -.

- -

Unlike the major modern-day group of marine birds (penguins), -which have flipper-like wings, hesperornithiforms propelled -themselves with large, (presumably) webbed feet, like loons -and grebes. Their wings had atrophied to tiny, useless things, and their -feet were set so far back that walking must have been extremely awkward. -Thus, they probably spent very nearly all of their time in the water.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Heterodontosaurids were a group of small, primitive - -from the . They -were all fairly similar to each other. Some species, such as -, bore small tusks while others, like -, were tuskless. It has been suggested -that perhaps only one gender bore tusks, and what are currently considered -separate -species may only be separate genders of the same species.

- -

Heterodontosaurids were traditionally considered primitive -, although they bear a number of similarities to - as well.

- - - - - - - - - - fish flippers - - - - - - - - - - dawn ichthyosaurs - - - - - - - fish lizards/' taxon - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' taxon - - - - - - - - true ichthyosaurs - - - - - - small pelves (hips) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Despite their name, ichthyosaurs were neither nor -, but -a group of uncertain origin that evolved into -completely marine forms. Like sharks, they had dorsal fins and a tail -fin that swept side-to-side.

- -

Ichthyosaurs arose during the , but did not -make it to the end of the . They were gone -before the K/T Extinction, which killed off other large marine - and the non- -. -

- -

Unlike all other advanced , ichthyosaurs -had more than five digits. It was once thought that they might be related -to very early tetrapods like , which had -as many as eight digits, but it seems more likely that they developed the -extra digits from an ancestor with five digits, although this is the only -known case of this happening in all of Tetrapoda. (Usually digits are -lost.)

- - - - - - - - - 's taxon - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - true iguanodonts - - - - - - forms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - spiked sterna - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

The major characteristic of these medium- to large-sized herbivores is -a spiky thumb, possibly used for defense against predators. When -, the first non- - to be scientifically described, was first put -together, its thumb-spike was -incorrectly placed on the nose, giving it the look of a reptilian -rhinoceros!

- -

The animals listed here cover the transition from early, --like iguanodontians to the medium-sized - to the archetypal to the -, the end result of - evolution. The evolution of the iguanodontian -thumb can be seen along this line as well: small in -, at its maximum -in , then tiny or absent in -.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

These "duck-billed" bore large, hollow -crests on their heads. The crests of and - were semicircular. - crests were similar, but with a spike jutting -out at the back of the crest. had a very -long crest pointing backwards from the head. - was the "duck-billed unicorn", with a narrow -spike pointing forward from above its eyes.

- -

The lambeosaurine crests may have been used as sexual displays. For many -lambeosaurine genera, there are two forms known, one with a smaller -crest, one with a larger crest. These were originally classified as different -species, although in some cases they may just be different genders.

- -

In addition to visual display, the tubular crests, which connected to the -nasal passages, may also have been used as giant trumpets, allowing the -lambeosaurines to let out great, deep, resonant bellows across the -prehistoric landscape. Another idea is that the crests enhanced their sense -of smell, allowing them to detect giant predators.

- - - - - - - - - - - - Lepidosauria forms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - scaly lizards - - - - snouted heads - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Lepidosauromorphs include all with -overlapping scales. Two types of lepidosauromorph remain alive today: - (tuatara) and the squamates -(lizards and their descendants, snakes).

- -

During the late , there were huge, marine -squamates known as mosasaurs. They went extinct at the end of the -, along with all non- -.

- - - - - - - - - - large nares - - - - - - - - - - - - - forms - - - - - - - - - forms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

The name Macronaria ("large nostrils") refers to the enlarged nasal -openings of this group. Like all , their nostrils -were situated atop their head, nearly above the eyes. Macronarians -had crests of varying sizes formed by high nasal bones. In some -specimens, these bones were not completely preserved, leaving the skull -looking rather low, like those of . For this -reason, many were once classified with them.

- -

Basal (non-titanosauriform) macronarians, or -"camarasaurs", were fairly typical sauropods of small to average size. -They had boxy skulls and spatulate teeth. Embryonic "camarasaur" material -indicates that some laid eggs with diameters of 24 cm.

- -

Most of the animals listed above as -non-titanosaurian titanosauriforms have been included at some time in the -family Brachiosauridae, but their exact relations to one another are -poorly understood at this time. Among these animals are some of the -largest land animals of all time, such as , -, and the new . -Some had very high nasal crests and forelimbs longer than hindlimbs.

- -

It was once thought that the large crest of "brachiosaurs" was a -snorkeling device. Since then it has been shown that if a - were to be submerged at such a depth as to -need a raised blowhole on its head, the pressure on its chest would be so -great that its lungs would collapse. Instead, it is likely that -"brachiosaurs", and probably all sauropods, were terrestrial.

- - - - - - - - - - - - before beasts - - - - single holes - - - - - - - - - - Theria forms - - - - - - - - - - - symmetrical teeth - - - - - branch beasts - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - beasts - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - middle beasts - - - - - - - - boreal beasts - - - - - southern beasts - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - pouches - - - - - - - - - Australian possums - - - - - - - - - fused fingers - - - - - 's taxon - - - two front teeth - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - true beasts - - - - - placenta - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - without teeth - - - - - - - - - - after beasts - - - - - - - - - - - - - - insect-eaters - - - - - - fierce ones - - - - - Carnivora forms - - - - meat-eaters - - - - - - rulers - - - - Chiroptera forms - - - - hand wings - - - - - skin wings - - - - - - Primates forms - - - - - - - primary ones - - - - - - - - - large limbs - - - - - - - - - - (rabbit) forms - - - - - - - - - - Rodentia forms - - - - - Rodentia forms - - - - - - - - - - - - Ungulata forms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - hooves - - - - - - - - tubular teeth - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - southern ungulates - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - odd number of fingers - - - - - - - - - - - - - Tethys Sea beasts - - - - sirens (alluring marine creatures of Greek mythology) - - - - - - linked beam - - - - - probosces - - - - - - - - - - - - - even number of fingers - - - - - whales - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - African beasts - - African shrews - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Laurasian beasts - - - - - - animal friends - - - - - - - - - - - - - - whale-hippo forms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Mammals originated around the same time as the -, but remained in their shadow throughout the -. After the K/T extinction, they diversified to -fit the niches that the dinosaurs left empty, as well as many other niches. -Go us! Dinosaurs may be cool, but who's on top of the food chain now, eh? -I have to go eat some .

- - - - - - - - - new ceratosaurs - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' taxon - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

These were mostly medium-large predators which displayed some primitive -characteristics, such as four manual digits, one of which was lost in -the more "advanced" , the other great branch of -. Although never quite as diverse (or numerous) as the -tetanurans, neoceratosaurs had some variety. Most were medium-large -predators, but there were also tiny ones like - and . - seems to have had a large "sickle claw" on -each foot, like the tetanuran and -. Many neoceratosaurs had ornate horns on -their heads, like and the carnotaurines.

- -

Neoceratosaurs were generally robust with "tall" heads. Some had a small -opening in front of the antorbital fenestra, similar but probably -convergent to the maxillary fenestra of tetanurans. Neoceratosaurs had six -or seven fused sacral vertebrae, more than other theropods.

- -

During the , neoceratosaurs inhabited the southern, or Gondwanan, -continents. If, as a few suspect, the mighty -are abelisauroids, they may have even been the dominant Gondwanan predators -(although it seems more likely that they are -). Neoceratosaurs persisted to the end of the -.

- - - - - - - - - - - new birds - - - - - old jaws - - - - - - - - - - (tinamou) forms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - new jaws - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

This group contains all modern, toothless . -They are divided into paleognathans (ratites and tinamous) and neognathans -(all other modern birds). Beyond that, classification gets tricky -- -there are about as many schemes as there are scientists studying avian -phylogeny. Neornithean systematics is highly volatile at the moment, so -don't be surprised if you see changes here.

- -

When all the other died -out at the end of the , neornithean -birds made an attempt to fill the empty niches left by the large predatory -. In South America, large, ground-dwelling, -carnivorous phorusrhacids evolved and lasted until fairly recently. But -today, with few exceptions, birds are aerial, not terrestrial.

- -

In the skies, however, these last descendants of the mighty dinosaurs -still reign supreme. They beat out in the - (in the smaller niches) and today they keep - from flying during the day. There are over -twice as many living species of bird as living species of mammal. They are -the last vestige of the dinosaurs' dominion.

- - - - - - - - - - - - bird-like ischia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Ceratopsia and Ornithopoda - - - - - - - - - margin heads - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Ornithischia includes the -"bird-hipped" , so called because the pubis -seems to run backwards and parallel to the ischium as -in (in actuality, a process on the pubis grew -backwards). Some dislike this name since certain - had more bird-like hips (especially -birds themselves!). They prefer the name Predentata, which refers to the -predentary bone in the front of the lower jaw. This bone is unique to -these dinosaurs.

- -

Apart from certain , ornithischians were the only -beaked dinosaurs. They were all herbivorous (save for a few possible -omnivores, like ), and included a very wide -variety of forms: , -, -, , and -.

- -

The earliest ornithischians were small, bipedal plant eaters, like - and . Most later -ornithischian lineages became quadrupedal as they evolved into bigger forms, -although some, like the and -, retained at least some degree of -bipedality throughout.

- - - - - - - - - - - bird necks - - - - - - Pterosauria forms - - - - - - - - Dinosauria forms - - - - - Dinosauria forms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Ornithodira ("bird necks") is divided into two major sections. -Dinosauromorpha includes and their early -ancestors, the "lagosuchians". These ancestors were very small, about -1.5 to 3.5 feet long. They were probably carnivorous or insectivorous.

- -

The other group, Pterosauromorpha, includes , -the so-called "flying " (although - are also considered reptiles under the cladistic -system). There are two possible non-pterosaurian pterosauromorphs: -, an animal which may have -glided on membranes supported by its hindlimbs; and -, a small, poorly understood creature.

- -

Some do not consider pterosaurs to be close relatives of dinosaurs: -

- -

All ornithodirans walked -with a fully upright stance, like that of most . -The group is named for the S-shaped neck found in most members.

- -

The only living ornithodirans, birds, are highly endothermic (or -"warm-blooded"), but there is still debate as to the metabolic rate of -extinct ornithodirans. The idea that they were endothermic has gained -much acceptance in recent times, but some still maintain that they were -ectothermic (or "cold-blooded"). Others think that they may have had -intermediate metabolisms, or alternate types of physiology. But everyone -agrees that the upright stance of ornithodirans indicates a high level -of activity, regardless of metabolic rate.

- -

It has been suggested that the fur-like integument seen in some pterosaur -fossils and the feathers seen in some dinosaurs (fossil and living) might be -homologous.

- - - - - - - - - - - - lizards - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

These are commonly known as the -"ostrich mimics" or "ostrich dinosaurs" (although, technically, - are dinosaurs -- and if you think about -it, isn't it ostriches who are ornithomimosaur mimics?). They were possibly -the fastest of dinosaurs, with conjectured running speeds of 40-50 1. -They all had very large eyes, like their possible relatives the -.

- -

A peculiar feature of the ornithomimoids is the toothless, beaked mouth. -This may indicate that they were one of the few groups of -non- to abandon a -predatory lifestyle, possibly assuming an herbivorous or omnivorous mode of -life similar to that of modern-day ostriches. Early ornithomimosaurs such as - still had teeth, -although they were quite small.

- -

Ornithomimoids were all fairly similar. They had lost the first, inner -toe, a dewclaw in most theropods. The ornithomimids are especially difficult -to distinguish from each other, and for this reason some feel that they -should all be lumped into one genus, .

- -

Ornithomimosaurs were fairly similar in size, from the most primitive ones -at 2 meters long to the advanced ones at 3.5-4m. The exception is the giant -ornithomimoid

- - - - - - - - - - bird feet - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - true ornithopods - - - - - - 's taxon - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

This group has at various times included nearly all bipedal -. By now many forms once included here have -been recognized as primitive members of other largely quadrupedal groups -(, ), -creatures too primitive to belong to any major ornithischian clade -(, ), -or members of their own group (). -Ornithopoda still includes "hypsilophodonts" and - (including , -or duck-billed dinosaurs), and possibly -as well.

- -

It was once thought that the animals listed on this page formed a clade: -Hypsilophodontia, sister clade of . But newer -studies indicate that this group was paraphyletic. The only definite -hypsilophodont is itself.

- -

The animals on this page were small or tiny bipedal runners which may -have lived lifestyles similar to those of such modern-day - as deer, gazelles, and kangaroos. From creatures -such as these came the larger, semi-quadrupedal iguanodonts.

- - - - - - - - - - bird tails - - - - - - - - - - - forms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Ornithurans include modern birds () and -their relatives. Except for neornitheans, ornithurans retained small -teeth in their jaws, except at the front of the upper jaw (premaxilla).

- - - - - - - - - - - - lizards - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

This group includes the oviraptorids and the caenagnathids. The latter -are a somewhat poorly known group, known mainly by hands and feet, which -are fairly -like.

- -

Oviraptorids were a very peculiar group of . -Their mouths were entirely toothless, forming beaks. They were sometimes -classified with the , another group of -toothless theropods. However, they lack the arctometatarsalian foot of -the ornithomimids and other -theropods.

- -

One oviraptorid specimen was found huddled atop a nest of its own eggs, -its wing-like arms spread over them. Apparently it was protecting its brood -when a sand avalanche buried and killed it. (The head of the -specimen is missing, so it is not certain which type of oviraptorid it is, -although it may well be .)

- -

It is not certain whether oviraptorosaurs made it to the very end of -the . There is no evidence of them from very -late sediments, so they may have died out -right before the K/T Extinction. But some dinosaur groups are only known to -have died out in the K/T Extinction because their teeth have been found from -that time. Since oviraptorosaurs had no teeth, and teeth preserve better than -other remains, they may have made it to the end but not left any evidence -that we have yet found.

- - - - - - - - - - ' taxon - - - - - - - - - 's taxon - - - - - - - - - - - -

This was an odd group of , characterized by an -extremely thick skull roof, often lined with small bumps and spikes. The -most commonly accepted explanation for these thick "bone-heads" is that -they were used to butt heads in mating displays similar to those of -bighorn sheep.

- -

Pachycephalosaurs were once classified as , -mainly because of their bipedal stance. But they seem to be more closely -related to the , due to similarities such -as a ridge along the back of the skull, which evolved into a frill among -the ceratopsians.

- -

The genera listed here were the "flat-headed" pachycephalosaurs. They -were sometimes grouped into the family Homalocephalidae, although this is -probably paraphyletic.

- -

Pachycephalosaurs, known only from the northern hemisphere -(with few possible exceptions), are fairly -rare, leading some to theorize that they may have inhabited environments -that were not conducive to fossilization, such as mountains.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Pachycephalosaurids were the "dome-headed" pachycephalosaurs. Their skull -roofs were immensely thickened to create a large dome of solid bone on the -top of their skulls. The dome was adorned by bumps and spikes, which grew -quite long in . The spine was strengthened, -possibly for head-on butting.

- -

, at around 25 feet in length, was -by far the giant of the group. Most other species were less than 10 feet -long. was one of the smallest -non- dinosaurs.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Pterodactyloids included the largest flying animals of all time. Giants -like could grow to have wingspans over 30 -feet, possibly weighing over 500 pounds.

- -

These short-tailed came in a wide -variety of forms, from the forceps-beaked to -the sieve-toothed to the toothless -. Several had enormous crests atop their heads.

- -

Pterodactyloid diversity declined throughout the -. By the end there were only a few giant -forms, the smaller niches having all been taken over by -. This last remnant went extinct at the end of the -, as did all -save for .

- - - - - - - - - - winged lizards - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Although they were the only other flying , -pterosaurs were not closely related to . Their -wings had a very different structure. Birds support their wings with their -second finger (or possibly third, if the frame shift hypothesis is true), -while pterosaurs used the fourth. Additionally, pterosaurian -wings were largely made up of skin membranes strengthened by fibers, while -avian wings consist mainly of feathers.

- -

Pterosaurs originated at about the -same time as the -. They began as small, long-tailed forms, -sometimes called "rhamphorhynchoids". From these came larger, -short-tailed forms, which make up the group -.

- -

There is a recent theory that pterosaurs were not archosaurs, but -derived from some type of basal . -For more: -

- -

Pterosaurs were unique among in that at least some -of them were covered with hair, similar but not homologous to - hair. Although in some cases fibers in the wing -membrane have been mistaken for hair, some fossils such as those of - ("hairy demon") do show hair on the head, -neck, and torso, much like modern-day bats.

- - - - - - - - - - - lizard feet - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - true sauropods - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - new sauropods - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Sauropods were giant, long-necked plant-eaters. -All sauropods were quite large. Even the smallest ones were about as big as -the largest members of other dinosaur groups.

- -

Early sauropods like resembled large -"". As sauropod evolution progressed, -they became larger and more diverse. There were crested forms -(), armored forms -(), a plated form (), -sailback forms (some ), and a -club-tailed form (), but they were -never quite as diverse as the other two major dinosaurian groups, - and .

- -

The eusauropods shown here were often grouped together in Cetiosauridae, -but it is probably a paraphyletic grouping. Vulcanodontidae, consisting of -the non-eusauropod sauropods, is also probably paraphyletic.

- -

There is a wide variance -of opinion about this group, if it is a group. Some hold that the -club-tailed , the long-necked euhelopodines -(, , and ), and some of their relatives form a distinct clade. -More recently, other studies have strewn these animals all over Sauropoda, -placing as a basal , - as a "" -just outside , and -as a relative of !

- -

The position of nemegtosaurids is also debated. Some place them -as , others as . -They are currently only reliably known from cranial material, which -is often lacking in sauropod fossils.

- - - - - - - - - - - - Sauropoda forms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - before Sauropoda - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Sauropodomorphs were the long necked, herbivorous, lizard-hipped -, including the largest land animals of all -time.

- -

The primitive sauropodomorphs listed -here are commonly called -"prosauropods". These were semi-quadrupedal herbivores from the - and with large, -hooked claws on their feet. They were once thought to be omnivorous, since - teeth found with them were often mistakenly -thought to be the teeth of the prosauropods themselves. Instead, they were -the largest herbivores of their day (although primitive ones may have been -omnivorous).

- -

It is not certain whether "prosauropods" gave rise to the larger -, or if they are just the sister group to -Sauropoda. No cladistic analysis has yet been done to test "prosauropod" -monophyly. All to date have simply assumed monophyly based on the -fact that prosauropods lack a digit that sauropods possess, lack of a digit -usually being a derived trait, not a primitive one.

- -

-The taxon Brontosauria was originally designated for a group containing -Sauropoda and Prosauropoda, considered paraphyletic by its author. Here -it has been cladistically translated as the node containing Sauropoda -and Prosauropoda (sensu Wilson & Sereno), although this definition -has not yet been used formally, to my knowledge.

- - - - - - - - - - lizard faces - - - - - - creepers - - - - - - Romer's taxon - - - - - - - - - two apses - - - - - - - - - - - new diapsids - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - lizards - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Sauropsida is one of the two great lineages of - (the other being , -which includes ). All known sauropsids -belong to the clade Reptilia.

- -

Reptilia was once a "grab-bag" taxon for every amniote that was neither -a nor a mammal. It was divided into four sections based -on the number and alignment of certain holes in the back of the skull -(temporal fenestrae): Anapsida (no holes), Synapsida (a low hole), -Euryapsida (a high hole), and Diapsida (two holes -- includes -).

- -

Reptilia has since been re-defined as a clade: all the descendants of the -most recent common ancestor of the four living groups considered reptiles: - (turtles), (tuatara), - (lizards and snakes), and -(crocodiles and kin). This definition excludes some creatures once considered -reptiles (Synapsida -- formerly called "mammal-like reptiles"), and -includes some creatures previously not considered reptilian - -- birds).

- -

The groups Anapsida and Diapsida are still used as clades within Reptilia, -slightly modified from their traditional meanings (Anapsida now excludes -the most primitive sauropsids; Diapsida now includes birds). "Euryapsida", -which included marine reptiles such as and -, is now recognized as an unnatural grouping of -various aberrant diapsid lineages which lost their lower temporal -fenestrae.

- -

The is often called "The Age of Reptiles" -because of the reptilian dominance during most of that era. Dinosaurs ruled -the land, ruled the skies, and a great variety -of marine reptiles , plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs, -etc.) ruled the oceans. Most of these creatures died out in the K-T -extinction (ichthyosaurs died out earlier; champsosaurs, a freshwater -lineage, later).

- - - - - - - - - - lizard fins - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - true sauropterygians - - - - - - - - - - - - ' taxon - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Sauropterygians were a group of marine reptiles of uncertain origin. At times -allied to or , they are probably -, possibly a basal lineage of either - or .

- -

Their limbs had evolved into -flippers, which they used to swim through the - seas. The advanced sauropterygians, plesiosaurs, -came in two main body forms. Pliosaurs had long, large heads, and short necks, -similar to the distantly related . Plesiosauroids -had extremely long necks with tiny heads, looking something like a cross -between a and a . -All sauropterygians were carnivorous.

- -

Placodonts may or may not have been sauropterygians. They were -large, probably sluggish creatures somewhat similar in form to today's - and -(manatees and dugongs). Their broad teeth splayed outward from their mouths. -It has been suggested that they used them to crush -shells.

- -

Sauropterygians died out at the end of the , -along with all non- . -There have been reports of modern-day populations of plesiosauroids, but -these have either turned out to be other animals (rotting basking shark -carcasses) or deliberate hoaxes (the Loch Ness monster).

- - - - - - - - - ' taxon - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Spinosauria once included all theropods with tall vertebral spines. Some -of these creatures, such as and -, have since been allied to other groups.

- -

Spinosaurs all have -like conical teeth. Their -long snouts have kinks like those of and some -early . It is thought that they used these for -fishing, possibly in conjunction with other carnivorous activities.

- -

Baryonychines have more teeth at the end of their lower jaw than -spinosaurines. Spinosaurines are characterized by straight, unserrated -teeth.

- - - - - - - - ' taxon - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

These primarily herbivores had two rows of -plates and/or spikes going down the back.

- -

Although the spikes, which were usually found on the tail, were certainly -used for defense, the exact purpose of the plates is unknown. They could -not have made very effective armor, since they left the sides completely -exposed. Perhaps they performed a similar function to the sails of -, , and -, whatever that -function was (possibly heat regulation, sexual display, or both).

- -

Stegosaurs did not last to the end of the , -but died out during the , possibly due to -competition from other herbivores or from a -change in flora (the transition from gymnosperms to angiosperms) which they -could not adapt to. One creature which was thought to be a - stegosaur () -has turned out to be a ! (This is not the only -time marine remains have been mistaken for -stegosaur remains -- the plates of - turned out to be gill -rakers from a fish!)

- - - - - - - - - - - fused apses - - - - - lizards - - - - - - - true pelycosaurs - - - - - - - - - 's taxon - - - - - - - - - - - - - beast apses - - - - - - - terrible heads - - - - - - - - - - - - - - beast heads - - - - - dog teeth - - - - - - - true cynodonts - - - - - - - - - - - - Mammalia forms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Once called -like , -the animals shown here are no longer considered reptiles. Instead, they were -the non-mammalian members of a separate lineage. Their skin was -probably not dry and scaly like true reptiles.

- -

Synapsids were the first terrestrial vertebrates to truly dominate the -landscape. There were two main "waves", the "pelycosaurs" (non-therapsid -synapsids) in the Permian and then the early therapsids in the -.

- -

"Pelycosaurs" were probably cold-blooded. They ranged from large -herbivores like to snaggle-toothed, -sail-backed predators like . -The advanced ones show the beginnings of the mammalian tooth pattern -- incisors, -canines, and molars.

- -

Some (but probably not all) therapsids were warm-blooded, fur-covered, -and milk-giving. They varied from the beaked, tusked, and herbivorous -dicynodonts to the sleek, predatory . -By the end of the Triassic, most of these forms had died out, replaced by - (including ). Only -a few small survived, including some of -the earliest .

- - - - - - - - - - - stiff tails - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - new tetanurans - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Tetanurae consists of the advanced , -including and their ancestors. Tetanurans are -characterized by three fingers or less, an opening in the skull between the -antorbital fenestra and the naris (nostril) called the maxillary fenestra, and -stiffened tails (Tetanurae means "stiffened tails").

- -

The non-neotetanuran groups listed -here are sometimes grouped together in a group sometimes called -Megalosauria or Megalosauroidea, although this is probably a paraphyletic -group, as shown here. Most "megalosaurs" were large carnivores. Some think - and Torvosauridae (=Megalosauridae) make a -group, sharing enlarged, sickle-shaped thumb claws.

- -

was the first -non- to be -described. The family Megalosauridae was once a grab-bag for all sorts of -large theropods: , , -large , large -etc.

- -

Neotetanurans, an advanced group of tetanurans, had complex air -passages in their vertebrae and ribs. The furcula, a bone which is not always -preserved, has been found in a -() and several , so -it seems to be a neotetanuran trait as well.

- - - - - - - - - - four feet - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - double lives - - - - - Amniota forms - - - - - - - Amniota forms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Among terrestrial vertebrates, belong to -Amniota, a clade characterized by the ability to procreate on land. Of the -two main branches of amniotes, dinosaurs belong to -, which includes other - as well. The sister clade to Sauropsida, -, includes .

- - - - - - - - - - - ' taxon - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

These Asian pose some taxonomic problems. They were -originally classified as , although they have -some features very uncharacteristic for theropods. Their hips are -bird-like, although some theropods such as the and themselves have -bird-like hips as well. The front of the snout is a toothless beak, -although , , -and several lineages have toothless beaks as well. -But the feet, which have four functional, forward-facing toes, are utterly -unlike any other theropod feet. Except for some , all theropods have three functional toes and a -reduced dewclaw.

- -

Another theory was that they were an -outgroup to the , since ornithischians have -bird-like hips (although they are only superficially bird-like), beaks, and, -in the most primitive ornithischians, four toes. It has also been proposed -that they are late-surviving relatives of -"", since their teeth and feet are -similar to those of "prosauropods". (They are similar enough that -one jawbone from the Early Jurassic of China was published as the earliest -therizinosaur, although it is more likely a "prosauropod".)

- -

The discovery of , -a therizinosaur more primitive than those previously known, seemed to bolster -the theropod theory, as it had some -features. More recently, the discovery of an even more primitive -therizinosaur, , solidifies the therizinosaurs' -status as theropods, since it has a dewclaw. Interestingly, it also has -impressions of feathers or feather-like integument.

- -

There is still disagreement over which coelurosaurian group -therizinosaurs are related to. They have been allied with , , and . has -oviraptorosaur-like features in its pelvis.

- - - - - - - - - - beast feet - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' taxon - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - new theropods - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' taxon - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Theropoda is an incredibly diverse group of . Most of the Mesozoic theropods were sharp-toothed -predators, although there have been a few toothless, possibly herbivorous -groups. During the (or possibly ), some theropods evolved into feathered, flying -forms. Their descendants are today's .

- -

The group Theropoda ("beast feet") was named early on in -paleontological history, along with ("bird -feet" - a major group). It almost seems as -though the names were somehow mixed up and improperly assigned, since -theropods have bird-like feet and ornithopods have somewhat more -like feet, but the names stuck and it's far too late to -change them now.

- -

The non-neotheropod genera shown above -are often informally referred -to as "herrerasaurs". "Herrerasaurs" may be basal theropods, as shown -here, basal , or even basal . They had many primitive features, such as five -digits on the hands, although the outer two were very small and had no -claws.

- -

The more advanced -theropods, or neotheropods, are divided into two groups. The ceratosaurs -retained four digits on the hand (the outer one reduced), while the more -advanced only have three. Ceratosaurs were -further characterized by extra openings in cervical and dorsal centra, -fused pelvic bones and tarsals (in adults), and some modifications of the -tibia and fibula.

- -

It is possible that Ceratosauria as shown here is a paraphyletic group, -characterized only by primitive features. Neoceratosaurs may be share more recent -ancestry with tetanurans than with coelophysoids.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Thyreophora forms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Thyreophora includes the "armored ", a -group of primarily quadrupedal with bony -plates, scutes, and/or spikes protecting their backs from theropod -predators. Some -also exhibited armor like this.

- -

was -once classified as a , but it is really the earliest and most primitive -known member of this clade of armored dinosaurs. It was small, like -"fabrosaurids", but more robust and with bony scutes as armor.

- -

The more advanced thyreophorans, like , were -larger and fully quadrupedal. Creatures like this are thought to have -given rise to the two major lineages of thyreophorans, the plated and the heavily armored .

- - - - - - - - - - ' taxon - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

These primarily Cretaceous animals represent the last group of before the great K/T extinction. Bony plates have -been found with some specimens, indicating that they were armored, like -.

- -

South American forms such as were some -of the largest land animals of all time, probably larger than the gigantic - of the . - has been estimated at 80-100 metric -tonnes. Others, like , , and , may have been -of similar size.

- -

Argentinian egg material has been attributed to titanosaurs. The eggs are -typically 11-12cm in diameter, some up to 17cm. From relatively -small eggs like these came creatures which would grow thousands of times -larger! Eggs have also been attributed to , a -European titanosaur. Recently, Argentinian titanosaur eggs containing -fossilized embryos with skin impressions were discovered. The impressions -show non-overlapping scales, like those seen in many other - skin impressions.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

The phylogeny above is somewhat tentative.

-

Troodontids (formerly known as -saurornithoidids) were remarkable in -having the largest E.Q. (encephalization quotient) of all non- . Intelligence-wise, they may -have been on level with some modern-day . The large -brain, huge eyes, and grasping hands of these -may indicate a nocturnal, predatory lifestyle. However, their teeth may -indicate omnivory.

- -

The feet were equipped with "switchblade claws", similar to those of -. They were once placed with the -dromaeosaurids in , but this grouping -has been questioned. They share some features with , such as a pinched middle metatarsal -(possibly a speed adaptation), features of the braincase, and large eyes. -They have also been placed in basal , basal , and as sister group of the - group.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

This was the last group of huge predatory -, including the -ever-popular ("king of the tyrant -lizards"), a 40+ foot-long monster, largest of all land predators, -excluding some .

- -

For all their size and strength, tyrannosaurids had remarkably small arms -with only two fingers on the hand, the third digit having degenerated to -near nothingness.

- -

The near lack of forelimbs in tyrannosaurids (and to a lesser extent in -some other large predatory dinosaurs) poses an interesting problem: How -did they deal with tripping? A recent study of which incorporated data from studies of fall -trauma suggests that if were to trip while running -at top speed, the force of its fall would crush it. Therefore, it may be -that and other large tyrannosaurids restrained -themselves to a more conservative speed.

- -

There have been some proposals that and -perhaps other large tyrannosaurines were scavengers rather than predators, -since they had such tiny arms and couldn't run at top speed. But in -today's world there are no such things as true terrestrial scavengers -(vultures are aerial, not terrestrial, and can cover much more ground with -much less effort). All other terrestrial animals that eat carrion will -also hunt for their prey. It is likely that -fell into this category -- a hunter who wouldn't pass up an opportunity -for a "free meal". Its huge head, muscular neck, and dagger-like teeth -would easily have made up for its tiny arms, and its main prey, , probably had similar problems in -running at top speed, as they also had small forearms (albeit not nearly -as small as tyrannosaurid forearms) and large body size. Large -tyrannosaurines could almost certainly run faster than any animal of their -size. Their legs were similar to those of their close relatives the (a.k.a. "ostrich mimics"), often considered -the fastest (running) dinosaurs of all.

- - - - - - - - - - - vertebrae - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - jawed mouths - - - - - cartilaginous fish - - - - - - - bony fish - - - - - - - - ray fins - - - - - flesh fins - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

- Within the group of animals that have backbones, - belong to the tetrapods, or terrestrial - vertebrates. -

- - diff --git a/examples/dinosauricon/zebra.cfg b/examples/dinosauricon/zebra.cfg index 81384d2..d7eba32 100644 --- a/examples/dinosauricon/zebra.cfg +++ b/examples/dinosauricon/zebra.cfg @@ -1,3 +1,4 @@ -# $Header: /home/cvsroot/idis/examples/dinosauricon/Attic/zebra.cfg,v 1.4 2002-08-30 12:44:31 adam Exp $ +# $Header: /home/cvsroot/idis/examples/dinosauricon/Attic/zebra.cfg,v 1.5 2002-10-08 08:08:52 mike Exp $ # Bare-bones master configuration file for Zebra profilePath: .:../../tab:../../../yaz/tab +recordType: grs.sgml